jueves, 31 de marzo de 2022

Bunsen burner day

 

 
 El quemador Bunsen es uno de los símbolos omnipresentes de la química. Aunque podría ser una vista más rara en los laboratorios universitarios en estos días, debido a algunas de las sustancias altamente inflamables utilizadas, todavía se encuentran muy comúnmente en las aulas de ciencias de la escuela, y para la mayoría de nosotros probablemente traen recuerdos de las lecciones de ciencias escolares. 

Como hoy es el Día del Quemador Bunsen, este gráfico echa un vistazo rápido a la anatomía del quemador, y discutiremos su historia con un poco más de detalle a continuación.   En primer lugar, unas palabras sobre la elección de la fecha para el Bunsen Burner Day. 

Esto coincide con el aniversario del nacimiento de su creador, Robert Bunsen, o, al menos, está destinado a hacerlo. En realidad, hay cierta confusión sobre la fecha de nacimiento de Bunsen, con algunos documentos que indican que de hecho es el 30 de marzo, mientras que otros afirman el 31. Aún más confuso, aunque su propio CV escrito a mano es uno de los documentos que da su fecha de nacimiento como el 30, su biógrafo afirmó que Bunsen comúnmente celebraba su cumpleaños el 31. 

 Aunque su fecha de nacimiento puede permanecer poco clara, la contribución de Bunsen a la ciencia en la forma de su desarrollo del quemador Bunsen está bien documentada. Su diseño en realidad se basó y desarrolló uno anterior creado por Michael Faraday, que él y su asistente de laboratorio Peter Desaga refinaron posteriormente. Bunsen quería crear un dispositivo que produjera una llama con muy poco hollín, un criterio que el quemador que él y Desaga diseñaron fue capaz de hacer. Una llama de hollín arde de color amarillo o naranja; esto se debe a la presencia de átomos de carbono en el hollín, que brillan de color amarillo cuando se calientan a una temperatura alta.

 Esto fue problemático para Bunsen, ya que quería estudiar los colores de la luz emitida cuando se calentaban diferentes elementos, pero esto era imposible con el color de los átomos de carbono incandescentes que enmascaraban cualquier otro color. Su nuevo quemador podría tener el flujo de aire en él ajustado. 

Cuando se cerró su orificio de aire, se produjo una llama de hollín a baja temperatura debido a la quema incompleta del combustible de gas. Sin embargo, cuando el orificio de aire estaba abierto, más aire podía fluir hacia el quemador y, por lo tanto, había más oxígeno disponible, lo que permitía que el gas se quemara por completo y evitaba la generación de partículas de hollín. 

 Cuando una muestra de elemento se calienta, puede absorber energía de la llama, y los electrones en los átomos de la muestra pueden obtener esta energía: se convierten en lo que los químicos llaman "excitado", saltando a niveles más altos de energía electrónica dentro del átomo. Sin embargo, este es un estado fugaz. Los electrones pronto vuelven a caer a sus posiciones originales desde estos niveles de energía más altos. 

Cuando lo hacen, liberan su exceso de energía en forma de luz, creando una emisión característica. El patrón exacto de luz producida en el espectro de emisión es único para diferentes elementos, esencialmente la "huella digital" de un elemento, por lo que se puede utilizar para determinar la identidad de un elemento. 

 Esto es exactamente lo que hizo Bunsen. Usando su quemador junto con un espectroscopio para permitirle ver las diferentes longitudes de onda de la luz emitida por muestras calentadas, pudo identificar los espectros de emisión de diferentes elementos. 

Usando este proceso, incluso descubrió dos elementos previamente desconocidos: el cesio en 1860 y el rubidio en 1861. Los estudiantes comúnmente repiten un proceso similar usando su quemador epónimo en las escuelas de hoy. 

Los compuestos sólidos se pueden mantener en una llama Bunsen, o las soluciones se pueden rociar en la llama, para producir llamas de colores que son características de elementos particulares, lo que permite identificarlos. 

 Los espectros de emisión de los elementos tampoco solo tienen aplicaciones en el laboratorio de ciencias. 

También son utilizados por los astrónomos para identificar los constituyentes elementales de estrellas distantes. Sin poder interpretar estos espectros, sería casi imposible determinar los constituyentes de las estrellas, pero con ellos, podemos determinar con confianza la composición de las estrellas a cientos de años luz de distancia. 

martes, 29 de marzo de 2022

Nueva estrategia para introducir sustancias en la célula con la ayuda del boro

 Investigadores españoles y alemanes han ideado un mecanismo para llevar agentes bioactivos al interior de la célula utilizando unos compuestos de boro que son capaces de desordenar las moléculas de agua y deshidratar la carga que llevan. De esta forma pueden atravesar la membrana celular sin dañarla y entregar el cargamento, lo que puede resultar de gran interés para administrar fármacos.

Esquemas de la actividad portadora de los nuevos compuestos de boro. Sus propiedades supercaotrópicas 

les permite desordenar las moléculas de agua y deshidratar así la carga que transportan, 

para poder atravesar la membrana hidrófoba y entregarla dentro. / A. Barba-Bon, G. Salluce et al./ Nature

Uno de los grandes retos en el diseño de fármacos es introducir en la célula moléculas que sean

 solubles en agua, pues la membrana celular supone una barrera semipermeable que este

 tipo de sustancias no pueden atravesar fácilmente. Para superarla, los expertos vienen

 empleando distintos vehículos artificiales como polímeros, lípidos y algunos tipos de péptidos

 que consiguen llevar su carga al interior celular con éxito.


Hasta la fecha, todos estos portadores tienen una estructura anfifílica (con un extremo afín 

al agua y el otro a los lípidos), lo que les permite enmascarar de manera transitoria su carga

 en un envoltorio hidrófobo para abrirse paso a través de la membrana lipídica. Pero esta 

estrategia tiene sus limitaciones: en ocasiones, este mismo comportamiento puede 

dañar la membrana, y en otros casos los compuestos anfifílicos muestran poca solubilidad,

 lo que puede limitar su efectividad.
Estos compuestos de boro tienen propiedades supercaotrópicas que les permite desordenar

 las moléculas de agua y deshidratar la carga que llevan, para así poder atravesar la 

membrana celular y entregarla
Ahora investigadores del Centro Singular de Investigación en Química Biolóxica y Materiais 

Moleculares (CiQUS) de la Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, en colaboración con 

científicos de la Universidad Jacobs de Bremen (Alemania), han desarrollado una nueva 

clase de vehículos moleculares para administrar fármacos que trasciende el dogma anfifílico. 

El avance lo publican en un articulo de acceso abierto en Nature.


Los nuevos portadores son clústeres o conjuntos de átomos de boro con forma esférica, 

carga negativa y una excelente solubilidad en el agua. La clave reside en su naturaleza 

supercaotrópica, una propiedad que les permite desordenar las moléculas de agua y

 deshidratar así la carga que transportan para poder atravesar la membrana hidrófoba.


“Hemos identificado una clase completamente nueva de vehículos que podrían ser utilizados 

para llevar distintos fármacos al interior de las células. Los aniones supercaotrópicos son 

una nueva herramienta, totalmente diferente a las que había hasta la fecha, para poder 

internalizar sustancias hidrófilas en la célula cuyo potencial justo se acaba de 

empezar a explorar”, destaca Guilia Salluce del CiQUS, una de las dos primeras coautoras 

del estudio.
Javier Montenegro y Giulia Salluce, dos de los investigadores que han participado en el estudio

. / CiQUS
Por su parte, el grupo alemán, que dirige el profesor Werner Nau, ha estudiado el 

comportamiento de estos cúmulos de boro, junto a otros átomos (como el hidrógeno,

 el cloro, el bromo...), en modelos de membranas basados en vesículas artificiales.


Candidato óptimo de boro y bromo
En particular, se ha comprobado que un compuesto de boro y bromo (B12Br122- ) 

es el candidato óptimo de esta nueva clase de portadores de boro supercaotrópicos. 

Interactúa con las moléculas a transportar de una manera totalmente novedosa, 

sin necesidad de agregarse con ella o tener que encapsularla.


Hemos identificado una clase completamente nueva de vehículos que podrían ser utilizados

 para llevar distintos fármacos al interior de las células


“Los nuevos vehículos tienen unas propiedades de transporte muy particulares”, comenta 

Andrea Barba-Bon, investigadora del equipo alemán y la otra coautora del estudio, 

“a diferencia de los tradicionales compuestos anfifílicos, el orden en que se añaden 

los clústeres y las moléculas que queremos transportar a las vesículas, o incluso

 el tipo de membrana, tienen un efecto mínimo sobre su efectividad”. 


La nueva estrategia sirve para administrar con gran eficiencia una amplia variedad 

de sustancias bioactivas, desde pequeñas moléculas a péptidos de mayor tamaño. 

Estos complejos de boro pueden transportarlas con éxito al interior de células vivas,

 como ha demostrado el grupo del ICFO, liderado por el profesor Javier Montenegro


Los investigadores del centro gallego han conseguido llevar diferentes cargas hidrofílicas

 al interior de las células, incluyendo la faloidina –una molécula empleada habitualmente

 como marcador bioquímico del citoesqueleto– hasta el citosol en el interior celular, y teñir

 de este modo el esqueleto intracelular de distintos tipos de células. 


Los investigadores del CiQUS han llevado diferentes cargas hidrofílicos al interior de las células,

 incluyendo la faloidina, una molécula empleada habitualmente como marcador bioquímico de

l citoesqueleto. / Montenegro Lab.
“Anticipamos que el amplio y distinto espectro de entrega de nuestros portadores

supercaotrópicos será el punto de partida de estudios celulares-biológicos, neurobiológicos, 

fisiológicos y farmacéuticos conceptualmente distintos”, concluyen los autores en su artículo.
Referencia:


Andrea Barba-Bon, Guilia Salluce et al.“Boron Clusters as Broadband Membrane Carriers”. 

Nature, 2022.



Guilia Salluce (CiQUS)
Fuente: CiQUS
Derechos: Creative Commons.

domingo, 27 de marzo de 2022

Crocus chemistry: Saffron, colours, and poisonous imposters


 Did you know that saffron is obtained from a type of crocus? This is a fact that had somehow escaped me, and which I only discovered when wondering why saffron contains a compound called ‘crocin’. Turns out that, yes, there is a connection!

While the idea for this infographic was prompted by the eruption of crocuses currently taking place in our garden, these are Crocus vernus, the spring crocus. The crocus from which saffron is obtained is commonly called the saffron crocus, or sometimes the autumn crocus (more on that alternative later). As the latter name suggests, the saffron crocus, Crocus sativus, flowers in the autumn.

Saffron is obtained from the crocus stigmas, three deep red tendrils protruding from the centre of each flower. It takes a colossal 150 crocus flowers to produce a single gram of dried saffron, which goes a long way towards explaining why it’s the most expensive spice on supermarket shelves. Saffron’s deep red colour is due to the presence of crocin, a compound derived from the carotenoid compound crocetin. Crocin and related compounds are found in other crocuses, too, contributing to the range of yellows and oranges.

The purples and lilacs of crocus petals are due to a different group of compounds: anthocyanins. Researchers have identified nine key anthocyanin compounds as contributing to crocus colour, mainly glucosides of delphinidin and petunidin. They also identified some malonated anthocyanins which appear to be completely unique to crocuses.

While the crocus from which saffron is derived is sometimes referred to as “autumn crocus”, this moniker has the potential for deadly confusion. “Autumn crocus” is also commonly used as a name for several species in the Colchicum genus. These plants can look very similar to the saffron crocus, and also flower during the autumn, but you definitely don’t want to harvest any parts of them – all parts of the plant contain the toxic alkaloid colchicine.

Justin Brower over at Nature’s Poisons has a great post on colchicine, where he goes into the mechanism behind its toxicity:

Colchicine has two modes of action in the body.  In the first, colchicine inhibits neutrophil activity.  These are a type of white blood cell that kicks into gear during an immune response, causing inflammation.  […] The second mode of action is by binding to tubulin, which in turn inhibits mitosis […] the process in the cell cycle in which the chromosomes are split into two identical daughter cells.  We need mitosis for growth and replacement.

Colchicine: Don’t Eat the Crocus – Nature’s Poisons

Eating colchicine can lead to all manner of unpleasant symptoms, and more seriously can result in multiple organ failure and death. In short, you really don’t want to get autumn crocuses confused.

Despite its toxicity, colchicine has also been used as a treatment for gout due to its anti-inflammatory properties – usually when patients can’t take more standard anti-inflammatory painkillers. It’s another classic case of the dose making the poison, albeit one where there’s not a huge degree of difference: the dose required for therapeutic effects is not hugely distant from the dose at which toxicity is seen.

The good news is that true crocuses don’t contain colchicine. While eating bits of them still isn’t recommended – they still contain other compounds which, though they may not kill you, are still more than capable of kicking off unpleasant symptoms – saffron itself is safe to eat. Considering how many crocus plants it takes to make it, you’re probably still best off buying it at the supermarket.

The graphic in this article is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. See the site’s content usage guidelines.

Información obtenida  de https://www.compoundchem.com/2022/03/15/crocus/

viernes, 25 de marzo de 2022

What common stimulants do we get from plants? – in C&EN

 


To download a pdf of this article, visit http://cenm.ag/stimulants.

References used to create this graphic:

Oliver-Bever, B. “Why Do Plants Produce Drugs? Which Is Their Function in the Plants?” Q. J. Crude Drug Res. (1970). DOI: 10.3109/13880207009066221.

Spinella, Marcello. The Psychopharmacology of Herbal Medicine: Plant Drugs That Alter Mind, Brain, and Behavior. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2001.

Wiart, Christophe. “Plants Affecting the Central Nervous System.” In Ethnopharmacology of Medicinal Plants: Asia and the Pacific, 57–153. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, 2006.

A collaboration between C&EN and Andy Brunning, author of the popular graphics blog Compound Interest

miércoles, 23 de marzo de 2022

International Women’s Day: Twelve women from chemistry history


 Today (8 March) is International Women’s Day, so here’s another edition of the ‘Women in Chemistry History’ series. It highlights the contributions of another 12 women in chemistry, covering innovations from understanding cell ageing to testing for diseases.

If you haven’t seen the previous editions of this series, they’re available here: Part 1part 2, and part 3. There’s also an edition looking at contemporary women in chemistry, and a graphic looking at the women of the periodic table. Additionally, there’s the mammoth ongoing project to highlight contemporary women in chemistry which currently features 170 entries and counting!

The text of this graphic is reproduced below for screenreaders.

Rona Robinson (1884-1962)
The first woman in the UK to gain a first-class degree in chemistry. She later carried out research on dyes and was also a campaigner for women’s suffrage.

Rebeca Gerschman (1903-1986)
The first scientist to suggest that oxygen free radicals damage cells and cause cell ageing. She was nominated for a Nobel Prize but died before being considered.

Ruby Hirose (1904-1960)
Carried out research on serums and antitoxins. Her work contributed to the development of an effective polio vaccine, leading to its near-eradication.

Mary Elliott Hill (1907-1969)
Thought to be the first African American woman to be awarded a master’s degree in chemistry. With her husband, Carl McClellan Hill, developed ketene synthesis.

Mildred Cohn (1913-2009)
Used nuclear magnetic resonance to study the reactions of enzymes and proteins in the human body, particularly focusing on the reactions of ATP.

Asima Chatterjee (1917-2006)
The first woman to receive a doctorate at an Indian university. Carried out research on plant-derived medicines, leading to anti-epileptic and anti-malarial drugs.

Katsuko Saruhashi (1920-2007)
Carried out research showing that seawater releases more carbon dioxide than it absorbs, and also identified radioactive isotopes in seawater due to nuclear testing.

Helen Murray Free (1923-2021)
Worked on the development of test strips for diseases, including urine analysis ‘dip and read’ test strips for UTIs, diabetes and kidney disorders.

Evangelina Villegas (1924-2017)
Worked with Surinder Vasal to improve the amino acid content of maize, making it more nutritious. They were awarded the World Food Prize for their work.

Alma Levant Hayden (1927-1967)
Amongst the first African American scientists to work at the US Food & Drug Administration, where she uncovered Krebiozen as a sham cancer treatment.

Bettye Washington Greene (1935-1995)
Researched latex and polymers at Dow Chemical, which led to several patents. She was the first black woman to work in a professional position at the company.

Margarita Salas (1935-2019)
Discovered an enzyme which can amplify DNA samples, making them large enough for analysis, with important applications in forensics and medical testing.

The graphic in this article is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. See the site’s content usage guidelines.

Información obtenida de https://www.compoundchem.com/2022/03/08/iwd2022/

lunes, 21 de marzo de 2022

How do plant milks compare to cow’s milk?


 For plant milk manufacturers, business is booming. In 2021, 32% of British people surveyed drank plant-based milk as part of their diet, compared to 25% in 2020. How are these milks made, and how do they compare to cow’s milk when it comes to their environmental impact and nutritional value? This graphic takes a look.

The graphic in this article is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. See the site’s content usage guidelines.

Información sacada de https://www.compoundchem.com/2022/01/11/plant-milk/

domingo, 20 de marzo de 2022

The year in chemistry 2021

 




https://i0.wp.com/www.compoundchem.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/Chemistry-News-2021-Year-in-Review-v2.png?ssl=1

In 2020, science news was dominated by COVID and vaccine development. In many ways, 2021 has been little different, but away from the virus we’re now overly familiar with there were plenty of other chemistry-related news stories. This graphic highlights a selection of them – see below for more details as well as links to related articles and studies.

  1. Development of antivirals for COVID-19
    2021’s undoubted success story was the rollout of vaccines which brought us back to some semblance of normality. But development and trials of antivirals against COVID-19 also continued apace. A significant story was that of Molnupiravir, an antiviral pill initially hailed as a potent weapon against the disease. While full trial data has shown a lower effectiveness for Molnupiravir which has tempered some of the initial enthusiasm, it may still be beneficial. Another drug, Paxlovid, has been recently approved in the USA and UK and showed 89% efficacy in patients at risk of serious illness. However, producing sufficient Paxlovid to meet demand is likely to pose a challenge.
  2. Highly fluorinated compound restrictions
    Concerns around the use of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (commonly referred to as PFAS) have been growing over the past few years, particularly in relation to their potential toxicity and persistence in the environment. Their strong carbon-fluorine bonds resist being broken down by most means. In July, the US state of Maine became the first government to ban the use of PFAS where alternatives are available, and the EU also took steps towards potential future restrictions.
  3. Asymmetric organocatalysis wins chemistry Nobel Prize
    The Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Benjamin List and David MacMillan for developing asymmetric organocatalysis, which uses organic compounds to catalyse the creation of mirror image molecules.
  4. Use of leaded fuel finally phased out worldwide
    Leaded petrol, invented in 1921, was finally phased out 100 years later. Though its sale has been banned in many countries for some time, in July, Algeria became the last country in the world to halt sale of leaded petrol. The lead from leaded petrol will still be with us for some time, however; a study in June this year found that airborne particles in London still have 
    much higher levels of lead than the usual background level, 22 years after leaded petrol was banned in the UK.
  5. Amine catalysis claim debunked
    Early in the year, the chemistry world was abuzz with the publication of a study claiming that a carbon-carbon bond-forming reaction could be catalysed by an amine compound, instead of the usual expensive palladium catalyst. By the end of the year, however, the claims had been conclusively debunked. The observed catalytic activity was not, in fact, due to the amine, but due to the accidental creation of a palladium complex during the preparation of the amine.
  6. AI predicts protein structures
    AlphaFold, an AI tool produced by DeepMind (itself part of the the same company as Google) this year produced predicted protein structures for the nearly 20,000 proteins made by the human body. Proteins are built up from amino acids, and while determining the sequence of amino acids is relatively straightforward, predicting how the resultant protein chain arranges itself in 3D space is much more challenging. The structures have been made available for free online, and could give insights into protein function, as well a offering potential new targets for drug design.
  7. First malaria vaccine approved
    In October, the World Health Organisation approved the first vaccine for malaria in children. As well as being the first vaccine for malaria, it’s the first vaccine to be approved for any parasitic disease. The vaccine’s effectiveness is modest – it requires four doses, and prevents 30% of severe malaria cases in children under 5 – but it’s still estimated it could prevent the deaths of 23,000 children every year.
  8. Researchers create metallic water
    By dripping a liquid sodium-potassium alloy into a vacuum chamber containing small amounts of water vapour, researchers were able to observe metallic water, formed as electrons from the alloy were drawn into the water. Previously, metallic water’s existence had been theorised to occur only at extremely high pressures.
  9. Making jet fuel from captured carbon dioxide
    In November, details of a rooftop refinery which can convert carbon dioxide and water vapour from the air into jet fuel were published. The reactor uses a solar-powered redox reactor to reduce the carbon dioxide and water vapour to carbon monoxide and hydrogen, from which hydrocarbon fuels can be made. Commercialisation is planned, though an area a little larger than Switzerland would be required to meet current global aviation fuel demands.
  10. Controversial Alzheimer’s drug approved
    You might have thought that the first new approval of a drug for Alzheimer’s disease in 20 years might be a cause for fanfare. However, the drug in question, Aduhelm, which reduces amyloid-β plaques in the brain, has been met with scepticism about its effectiveness and cost – and questions remain over whether it slows cognitive decline. Despite its approval in the USA back in June, uptake of the drug has so far been limited.
  11. Skin oil changes identify Parkinson’s
    Several years ago, Joy Milne was dubbed “the woman who can smell Parkinson’s” after detecting a change in her husband’s smell years before he was diagnosed with the condition, and subsequently detecting a similar smell from other Parkinson’s sufferers. This year, research published in March identified 10 skin lipids that differed significantly between those with Parkinson’s and those without. It could help with diagnosis and monitoring the progression of the disease in sufferers.
  12. Home weed killers phase out glyphosate
    Glyphosate herbicides won’t be sold for home use in the US from 2023. The move follows concern about glyphosate’s effects on health, though the company that sells it, Bayer, says it’s primarily to avoid litigation. Glyphosate’s agricultural use will continue.

The graphic in this article is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License. See the site’s content usage guidelines.

Informacion de https://www.compoundchem.com/2021/12/30/tyic2021/